Archival Research

This study relies on archival research involving primary sources held in repositories. Archival sources include physical records, electronic records, and other materials 4. Each archival research work is unique because each archive has different resources, access, and constraints. Although generalizing archival work is not uniformly studied, this research paper is based on the construction of a chronology, similar to the methodology used by historians (Hammond, 2002).

This study depends heavily on official documents from primary sources: policy, legislation, recorded minutes of meetings, and in-person interviews. Secondary sources, such as newspapers or other media reports, are not used. The use of sequential, official documents from trustworthy sources lends itself to a systematic and incremental study with minimal ideological bias (L’eplattenier, 2009).

Classical Systems Theory

System theory asserts that the design of a system predicts the outcome, and if the outcome is undesirable, the individual system components can be modified to alter the output. When systems theory is applied to engineering systems, meaning is created from the interactions of many different components 7 .

Adams et al. Adams, Hester, Bradley, Meyers, and Keating (2014) outlined the history of systems thought by summarizing definitions provided by the four foundational researchers. Von Bertalanffy 9 focused on the formal correspondence of general principles, regardless of the relationships between system components, whileBoulding (1956) viewed general systems theory as a framework or structure on which to “hang flesh and blood” to develop an orderly and coherent body of knowledge relevant to different disciplines. Building on these foundational researchers,Klir (1972) conceptualized systems theory as a way to view phenomena as interrelated rather than isolated, which provides a way to study the complexity of a system, andGigch (1974) focused on the relationships between systems and subsystems. He studied the ideas of optimization and suboptimization and the sometimes “fruitless” efforts expended in the pursuit of summum bonum, or the “ultimate good.” From classical systems analysis, the entirety of the universe is divided into two elements: a system and its surroundings (Cengel & Boles, 2007).

Regardless of the field of application, systems can be designed for summum bonum but often fall short of this goal. Keating et al.Keating, Bradley, Katina, and Arndt (2018) postulated that suboptimization may be a more appropriate goal in terms of the expenditure of resources.

In summary, systems theory is used to analyze complex organizations, considering parts of the system as they relate to each other as the system aims to achieve desired outcomes. The outcome of the system is viewed as the end-product of the components; if desired outcomes are not achieved, the components of the system are examined and changed until the desired outcomes are achieved. From a practical standpoint, a goal of suboptimization may be more efficient a goal than optimization due to the expenditure of less fruitless effort.

Systems Theory Applied to Social Sciences

The problems facing the modern world are complex and systemic by nature and cannot be understood in isolation (Hammond, 2002). Interconnectedness and interdependence must be considered in the analysis of modern social systems, and studying human organizations using systems theory is timely and important.Hammond (2002) emphasized the importance of the role of dialog in the decision-making process of social systems. Additionally, she developed the possibility of using systems theory in a less technical, more humanistic way when applied to human systems instead of engineering systems, broadening the applicability of systems theory to a wide array of social problems.

There are differing views of how systems theory applies to social systems (Adams et al., 2014), but central to the research is the concept of communication and interconnectedness as key components of any social system (Grothe-Hammer, 2020; Kneupper, 1980; Luhmann, 1995) with self-sustainability as a goal.

Modern systems theory applied to social systems is based upon a social constructivist understanding of social reality, where meaning is constructed through communication (Kneupper, 1980).Grothe-Hammer (2020) postulated that changes in social systems occur through communication, andLuhmann (1995) saw communication media as the “universal key,” or a “super methodology” to explain systems process. The literature is clear on the importance of communication within a social system; some authors go so far as to say that the system is created by communication alone (Grothe-Hammer, 2020).

Another key element of systems theory is that social systems are viewed as holistic, meaning that the individual components of the system are interrelated and can only be analyzed with respect to other components 18. A holistic system can become capable of decision-making and self-management. This concept is called autopoiesis, which means self-production (, 1981).Lewis (2021) tells us that any system requiring “human vigilance” will degrade over time; when autopoiesis is achieved, constant intervention is no longer necessary for the system to continue functioning, as the system becomes self-sustaining. This is a working definition of autopoiesis.

The extent to which autopoiesis can be applied to social systems is debated.Cadenas and Arnold (2015) argued that autopoiesis is a fundamental concept of constructivist epistemology and applies to social systems if the definition is focused to mean self-sustaining. Similarly, a systems-thinking framework reflects upon the end-user’s experiences (Burrows, Borowczak, & Mugayitoglu, 2021; Chen & Venkatesh, 2013; Sweeney & Meadows, 2010).

Adams et al. (2014) proposed a definition of systems theory as applied to social systems. He articulated this definition by enumerating the following set of axioms to form a system construct, shown below in Table 1 .

In summary, systems theory can be applied to social systems when the definitions of component and autopoiesis are focused to mean communication and self-sustaining. Under these conditions, a social system can be analyzed using Adams’ et al. 8 axioms to characterize the system.

Literature Gap

This study focuses on the content and application of systems theory to an educational organization. Systems theory has been widely applied to study engineering systems, and more recently has been investigated to study social systems. However, a gap in the literature exists when considering educational systems using systems theory. Banathy and JenlinkBanathy and Jenlink (2013) stated the following:

With very few exceptions, systems philosophy, systems theory, and systems methodology as subjects of study and applications are only recently emerging as topics of consideration in educational professional development programs, and then only in limited scope. Generally, capability in systems inquiry is limited to specialized interest groups in the educational research community. It is our firm belief that unless our educational communities and our educational professional organizations embrace systems inquiry, and unless our research agencies learn to pursue systems inquiry, the notions of “systemic reform” and “systemic approaches to educational renewal” will remain a hollow and meaningless rhetoric.

25 (p. 47)

Based on this literature gap, it is appropriate and important to study educational systems, such as the delivery of universal K-12 education in Wyoming, using systems theory.

Wyoming’s K-12 Computer Science Initiative

In 2019, then-Governor Matt Mead issued an executive action to include “the use and understanding of computer science” to the educational deliverables guaranteed to each Wyoming K-12 student. This initiative was part of the Wyoming Innovation Network/Wyoming Innovation Partnership (WIN/WIP) and was the first step in the delivery of universal CS education in Wyoming K-12 schools 26, 27 .

Following the executive action, the governor’s office created a task force to determine how to implement the action, and a legislative committee was empaneled to study CS in Wyoming’s K-12 schools. The committee sponsored 18LSO0221 “Education – Computer Science and Computational Thinking” at its November 14, 2018 meeting for sponsorship during the 2019 legislative Session. The bill was passed as SF0029, “Education – Computer Science and Computational Thinking” (Northrup, Dechert, Floyd, & Burrows, 2021), and implemented through the Wyoming Legislature. Table 2 describes the measures enacted by SF0029.

 In response to SF0029, the WDE developed the Wyoming CS Content Standards 29 . These standards are based on the seven practices enumerated in Table 3 .

Following SF0029, the Professional Teaching Standards Board (PTSB) began the process of certifying K-12 teachers to teach CS in Wyoming schools. One method of certification is for practicing teachers to earn a K-12 CS Endorsement Skills Certificate through a Wyoming institution of higher education, then use this endorsement to apply to the PTSB for certification. Six of Wyoming’s community colleges and the University of Wyoming have created K-12 Computer Science Endorsement Skills Certificates based upon these standards and PTSB requirements. Each program shares eight credits in two common classes (Introduction to Computer Science and Computer Science I), and completion of each program requires 15 to 20 semester credits 30, 31 . The remaining 7 to 12 credits are selected from various courses, including social media, robotics, web design, and additional courses in computer science.

All endorsement programs must be approved through the PTSB. Additionally, all programs offered by Wyoming Community Colleges must be approved by the Wyoming Community College Commission (WCCC).

Current State of NWC’s K-12 CS Endorsement Program

 In response to SF0029, NWC formed a faculty development team to create the curriculum for the K-12 CS Endorsement Skills Certificate. The coursework was selected and refined based on the WDE CS Content and Performance Standards, in conjunction with PTSB requirements. The skills certificate consists of 15 semester credits, distributed among five courses. Two of these courses (Introduction to Computer Science and Computer Science I) were existing catalog courses that address Practices 3, 4, 5, and 6 of the Wyoming Department of Education Computer Science Standards. Robotics was modified from an existing catalog course to address Practices 2 and 3 ( Northwest College, 2018). Two new courses were created: Application Development and Social Media for K-12 Teachers ( Northwest College, 2020). Application Development addresses Practices 5 and 6, whereas Social Media for K-12 Teachers addresses Practices 1, 2, and 7 (Northrup et al., 2021; Wyoming Department of Education, 2021).

The first step in the internal approval process was for the faculty development team to present the K-12 Computer Science Skills Certificate to NWC’s Curriculum Committee. New courses and the modified course required approval as NWC catalog courses, and the program required preliminary approval as a skills certificate. The courses and certificate program were approved at the regular meeting on December 10, 2019 34 .

The next step toward approval was for NWC administration to bring the skills certificate to the Wyoming PTSB for consideration as an endorsement program for certified teachers to teach CS within their grade bands. The program was presented and approved for endorsement in January 2020 31.

The final step was to seek approval from the WCCC for the K-12 CS endorsement program to be approved as a skills certificate. This approval was granted at the regular meeting of the WCCC held on April 16, 2020, and now, the path was cleared to begin offering the skills certificate to in-service teachers who wanted to earn K-12 CS endorsements 35.

The teachers in NWC’s first cohort completed Introduction to Computer Science in the 2020 summer semester, followed by Computer Science I and Social Media for K-12 teachers in the fall of 2020. In the spring 2021 semester, the teachers completed Application Development, and they finished their skills certificate with Robotics in the 2021 summer semester. In total, 13 teachers earned their skills certificates and endorsements in 2021.

Based on the results of the initial offering, the general format was found to be effective, and NWC will continue to serve its constituency and meet its mission by refining the K-12 CS endorsement program to remain relevant over time (Northrup et al., 2021).

In the summer semester of 2021, a second cohort of six teachers began coursework for the K-12 CS Skills Certificate. Based on feedback from the first cohort, minor modifications to the schedule were introduced, and these six teachers are on schedule to earn their CS Skills Certificates in the Summer of 2022. Future classes follow the same general outline with modifications to the schedule and content determined based on student feedback. Further curriculum refinement, including the introduction of different programming languages and environments, will be determined in cooperation with the faculty development team and student feedback.

Credibility and Trustworthiness (Reliability and Validity)

The trustworthiness of archival research depends on the veracity of the documents studied. Bias is minimized because the documents are prepared by sources other than the researcher. AsDonaldson (2016) states, “We can trust a text if it is the work of an individual or group of individuals whom we can trust”. This study relies heavily on official documents from primary sources: policy, legislation, official press releases, and recorded minutes of meetings. The use of sequential, official documents from trustworthy sources lends itself to a systematic and incremental study with minimal ideological bias (L’eplattenier, 2009).

Because of the vast array of available documents, selecting viable documents from well-grounded sources is key to establishing credibility and trustworthiness. Studying these documents in a systematic process creates a body of evidence that can be analyzed using systems theory.

Procedures

 The archival research was conducted primarily through the electronic retrieval of official documents, searching for the “next steps” as determined by the previous step, and finding documents created based on prior documents. Every official document used was a compilation or continuation of many other documents and conversations codified into a single instance of an official document. This procedure allowed for a systematic study, resulting in a logical chronology of events leading from one to the other based on official accounts from credible sources.

Analysis Using the Centrality Axiom

The centrality axiom (Adams et al., 2014) facilitates a discussion of communications between nodes to identify where and how decisions are made and how they influence the rest of the system. The starting point of the analyzed system is the WIN/WIP executive action by Governor Mead to introduce universal K-12 computer science to Wyoming K-12 schools. The endpoint is Wyoming teachers who earned endorsements to teach K-12 CS through NWC. This start and end represent the current boundaries of the system, which were created to narrow the focus of the analysis. Similar systems could be constructed for teachers completing other endorsement programs. Table 4 describes the pathway for certifying K-12 CS teachers through NWC’s approved skills certificate, displaying the data flow between each system node. The chronology of the system moves forward based on data flow rather than on a narrative, as it does in traditional archival research. Data flow occurs between nodes that define the points of contribution to the system 38 .

Because full implementation is now in the earliest stage, the availability of universal K-12 CS education in Wyoming is viewed as a data flow out of the system. After full implementation, this aspect could be reanalyzed as the endpoint of the system.

Analysis Using the Contextual Axiom

The contextual axiom examines the circumstances and factors surrounding the system (Adams et al., 2014). The system is acted upon by external inputs and delivers external outputs. Both inputs and output occur through the data flow.

Figure 1 presents a context-level system diagram. The system is teachers endorsed in K‑12 computer science through NWC, which is identical to the endpoint of the system analyzed using the centrality axiom (Node 9). Nodes 1 to 8 are external inputs and outputs to the system, and communications are data flows.

Figure 1